religious doubt

His films wrestle with faith, blasphemy, and spiritual contradiction, most notably in *The Gospel According to St. Matthew* and *Salò*, exploring the sacred and profane in constant tension.

His masterpieces *Vampyr* and *Ordet* probe the fragility of faith and the anguish of doubt through metaphysical imagery and deeply introspective human struggle.

Raised Calvinist, his films like *First Reformed* and *Taxi Driver* dissect religious conviction, moral crisis, and spiritual despair with unflinching psychological depth.